2017-04-24 23:03:13 +08:00
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## 为使用不同类型的值而设计的 trait 对象
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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> [ch17-02-trait-objects.md](https://github.com/rust-lang/book/blob/master/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md)
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> <br>
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2017-04-24 23:03:13 +08:00
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> commit 67876e3ef5323ce9d394f3ea6b08cb3d173d9ba9
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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2017-05-11 23:51:16 +08:00
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在第八章,我们谈到了 vector 只能存储同种类型元素的局限。在列表 8-1 中有一个例子,其中定义了存放包含整型、浮点型和文本型成员的枚举类型`SpreadsheetCell`,这样就可以在每一个单元格储存不同类型的数据,并使得 vector 仍然代表一行单元格。当编译时就知道类型集合全部元素的情况下,这种方案是可行的。
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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<!-- The code example I want to reference did not have a listing number; it's
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the one with SpreadsheetCell. I will go back and add Listing 8-1 next time I
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get Chapter 8 for editing. /Carol -->
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2017-05-11 23:51:16 +08:00
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有时,我们需要可扩展的类型集合,能够被库的用户扩展。比如很多图形化接口工具有一个条目列表,迭代该列表并调用每个条目的 draw 方法。我们将创建一个库 crate,包含称为 `rust_gui` 的 GUI 库。库中有一些为用户准备的类型,比如 `Button` 或 `TextField`,`rust_gui`的用户还会创建更多,有的用户会增加`Image`,有的用户会增加`SelectBox`,然后用它们在屏幕上绘图。我们不会在本章节实现一个完善的GUI库,只是展示如何把各部分组合起来。
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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2017-05-11 23:51:16 +08:00
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当写 `rust_gui` 库时,我们不知道其他程序员需要什么类型,所以无法定义一个 `enum` 来包含所有的类型。然而 `rust_gui` 需要跟踪所有这些不同类型的值,需要有在每个值上调用 `draw` 方法能力。我们的 GUI 库不需要确切地知道调用 `draw` 方法会发生什么,只需要有可用的方法供我们调用。
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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2017-05-11 23:51:16 +08:00
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在可以继承的语言里,我们会定义一个名为 `Component` 的类,该类上有一个`draw`方法。其他的类比如`Button`、`Image`和`SelectBox`会从`Component`继承并拥有`draw`方法。它们各自覆写`draw`方法以自定义行为,但是框架会把所有的类型当作是`Component`的实例,并在其上调用`draw`。
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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2017-04-10 16:06:17 +08:00
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### 定义一个带有自定义行为的Trait
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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2017-05-12 22:58:23 +08:00
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不过,在Rust语言中,我们可以定义一个 `Draw` trait,包含名为 `draw` 的方法。我们定义一个由*trait对象*组成的vector,绑定了某种指针的trait,比如`&`引用或者一个`Box<T>`智能指针。
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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之前提到,我们不会称结构体和枚举为对象,以区分其他语言的结构体和枚举对象。结构体或者枚举成员中的数据和`impl`块中的行为是分开的,而其他语言则是数据和行为被组合到一个对象里。Trait 对象更像其他语言的对象,因为他们将其指针指向的具体对象作为数据,将在trait 中定义的方法作为行为,组合在了一起。但是,trait 对象和其他语言是不同的,我们不能向一个 trait 对象增加数据。trait 对象不像其他语言那样有用:它们的目的是允许从公有行为上抽象。
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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trait 对象定义了给定情况下应有的行为。当需要具有某种特性的不确定具体类型时,我们可以把 trait 对象当作 trait 使用。Rust 的类型系统会保证我们为 trait 对象带入的任何值会实现 trait 的方法。我们不需要在编译阶段知道所有可能的类型,却可以把所有的实例统一对待。Listing 17-03展示了如何定义一个名为`Draw`的带有`draw`方法的trait。
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
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```rust
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pub trait Draw {
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fn draw(&self);
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}
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```
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<span class="caption">Listing 17-3:`Draw` trait的定义</span>
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<!-- NEXT PARAGRAPH WRAPPED WEIRD INTENTIONALLY SEE #199 -->
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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因为我们已经在第10章讨论过如何定义 trait,你可能比较熟悉。下面是新的定义:Listing 17-4有一个名为 `Screen` 的结构体,里面有一个名为 `components` 的 vector,`components` 的类型是Box<Draw>。`Box<Draw>` 是一个 trait 对象:它是 `Box` 内部任意一个实现了 `Draw` trait 的类型的替身。
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
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```rust
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# pub trait Draw {
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# fn draw(&self);
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# }
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#
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pub struct Screen {
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pub components: Vec<Box<Draw>>,
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}
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```
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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<span class="caption">Listing 17-4: 定义一个 `Screen` 结构体,带有一个含有实现了 `Draw` trait 的 `components` vector 成员
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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</span>
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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在 `Screen` 结构体上,我们将要定义一个 `run` 方法,该方法会在它的 `components` 上调用 `draw` 方法,如Listing 17-5所示:
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
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```rust
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# pub trait Draw {
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# fn draw(&self);
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# }
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#
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# pub struct Screen {
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# pub components: Vec<Box<Draw>>,
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# }
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#
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impl Screen {
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pub fn run(&self) {
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for component in self.components.iter() {
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component.draw();
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}
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}
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}
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```
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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<span class="caption">Listing 17-5:在 `Screen` 上实现一个 `run` 方法,该方法在每个组件上调用 `draw` 方法
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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</span>
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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这与带 trait 约束的泛型结构体不同(trait 约束泛型参数)。泛型参数一次只能被一个具体类型替代,而 trait 对象可以在运行时允许多种具体类型填充 trait 对象。比如,我们已经定义了 `Screen` 结构体使用泛型和一个 trait 约束,如Listing 17-6所示:
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
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```rust
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# pub trait Draw {
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# fn draw(&self);
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# }
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#
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pub struct Screen<T: Draw> {
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pub components: Vec<T>,
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}
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impl<T> Screen<T>
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where T: Draw {
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pub fn run(&self) {
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for component in self.components.iter() {
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component.draw();
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}
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}
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}
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```
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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<span class="caption">Listing 17-6: 一种 `Screen` 结构体的替代实现,它的 `run` 方法使用通用类型和 trait 绑定
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</span>
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2017-05-11 23:51:16 +08:00
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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这个例子中,`Screen` 实例所有组件类型必需全是 `Button`,或者全是 `TextField`。如果你的组件集合是单一类型的,那么可以优先使用泛型和 trait 约束,因为其使用的具体类型在编译阶段即可确定。
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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而 `Screen` 结构体内部的 `Vec<Box<Draw>>` trait 对象列表,则可以同时包含 `Box<Button>` 和 `Box<TextField>`。我们看它是怎么工作的,然后讨论运行时性能。
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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2017-04-10 16:06:17 +08:00
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### 来自我们或者库使用者的实现
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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现在,我们增加一些实现了 `Draw` trait 的类型,再次提供 `Button`。实现一个 GUI 库实际上超出了本书的范围,因此 `draw` 方法留空。为了想象实现可能的样子,`Button` 结构体有 `width`、`height` 和 `label`字段,如Listing 17-7所示:
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
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```rust
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# pub trait Draw {
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# fn draw(&self);
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# }
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#
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pub struct Button {
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pub width: u32,
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pub height: u32,
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pub label: String,
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}
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impl Draw for Button {
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fn draw(&self) {
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// Code to actually draw a button
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}
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}
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```
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2017-04-10 16:06:17 +08:00
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<span class="caption">Listing 17-7: 实现了`Draw` trait的`Button` 结构体</span>
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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在 `Button` 上的 `width`、`height` 和 `label` 会和其他组件不同,比如 `TextField` 可能有 `width`、`height`,
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`label` 以及 `placeholder` 字段。每个我们可以在屏幕上绘制的类型都会实现 `Draw` trait,在 `draw` 方法中使用不同的代码,定义了如何绘制 `Button`。除了 `Draw` trait,`Button` 也可能有一个 `impl` 块,包含按钮被点击时的响应方法。这类方法不适用于 `TextField` 这样的类型。
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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假定我们的库的用户相要实现一个包含 `width`、`height` 和 `options` 的 `SelectBox` 结构体。同时也在 `SelectBox` 类型上实现了 `Draw` trait,如 Listing 17-8所示:
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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```rust
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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extern crate rust_gui;
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use rust_gui::Draw;
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struct SelectBox {
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width: u32,
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height: u32,
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options: Vec<String>,
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}
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impl Draw for SelectBox {
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fn draw(&self) {
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// Code to actually draw a select box
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}
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}
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```
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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<span class="caption">Listing 17-8: 另外一个 crate 中,在 `SelectBox` 结构体上使用 `rust_gui` 和实现了`Draw` trait
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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</span>
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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库的用户现在可以在他们的 `main` 函数中创建一个 `Screen` 实例,然后把自身放入 `Box<T>` 变成 trait 对象,向 screen 增加 `SelectBox` 和 `Button`。他们可以在这个 `Screen` 实例上调用 `run` 方法,这又会调用每个组件的 `draw` 方法。 Listing 17-9 展示了实现:
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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```rust
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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use rust_gui::{Screen, Button};
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fn main() {
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let screen = Screen {
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components: vec![
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Box::new(SelectBox {
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width: 75,
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height: 10,
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options: vec![
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String::from("Yes"),
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String::from("Maybe"),
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String::from("No")
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],
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}),
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Box::new(Button {
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width: 50,
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height: 10,
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label: String::from("OK"),
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}),
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],
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};
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screen.run();
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}
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```
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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<span class="caption">Listing 17-9: 使用 trait 对象来存储实现了相同 trait 的不同类型
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2017-04-10 16:06:17 +08:00
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</span>
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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虽然我们不知道哪一天会有人增加 `SelectBox` 类型,但是我们的 `Screen` 能够操作 `SelectBox` 并绘制它,因为 `SelectBox` 实现了 `Draw` 类型,这意味着它实现了 `draw` 方法。
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2017-04-10 16:06:17 +08:00
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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只关心值的响应,而不关心其具体类型,这类似于动态类型语言中的 *duck typing*:如果它像鸭子一样走路,像鸭子一样叫,那么它就是只鸭子!在 Listing 17-5 `Screen` 的 `run` 方法实现中,`run` 不需要知道每个组件的具体类型。它也不检查组件是 `Button` 还是 `SelectBox` 的实例,只管调用组件的 `draw` 方法。通过指定 `Box<Draw>` 作为 `components` 列表中元素的类型,我们约束了 `Screen` 需要这些实现了 `draw` 方法的值。
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2017-04-10 16:06:17 +08:00
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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Rust 类型系统使用 trait 对象来支持 duck typing 的好处是,我们无需在运行时检查一个值是否实现了特定方法,或是担心调用了一个值没有实现的方法。如果值没有实现 trait 对象需要的 trait(方法),Rust 不会编译。
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2017-04-10 16:06:17 +08:00
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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比如,Listing 17-10 展示了当我们创建一个使用 `String` 做为其组件的 `Screen` 时发生的情况:
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<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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```rust
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extern crate rust_gui;
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use rust_gui::Draw;
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fn main() {
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let screen = Screen {
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components: vec![
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Box::new(String::from("Hi")),
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],
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};
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screen.run();
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}
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```
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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<span class="caption">Listing 17-10: 尝试使用一种没有实现 trait 对象的类型
|
2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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2017-04-10 16:06:17 +08:00
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</span>
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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我们会遇到这个错误,因为 `String` 没有实现 `Draw` trait:
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2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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```text
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error[E0277]: the trait bound `std::string::String: Draw` is not satisfied
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-->
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4 | Box::new(String::from("Hi")),
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| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Draw` is not
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implemented for `std::string::String`
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= note: required for the cast to the object type `Draw`
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|
```
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|
2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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这个错误告诉我们,要么传入 `Screen` 需要的类型,要么在 `String` 上实现 `Draw`,以便 `Screen` 调用它的 `draw` 方法。
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2017-04-10 16:06:17 +08:00
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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### Trait 对象执行动态分发
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2017-04-10 16:06:17 +08:00
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2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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回忆一下第10章我们讨论过的,当我们在泛型上使用 trait 约束时,编译器按单态类型处理:在需要使用范型参数的地方,编译器为每个具体类型生成非泛型的函数和方法实现。单态类型处理产生的代码实际就是做 *static dispatch*:方法的代码在编译阶段就已经决定了,当调用时,寻找那段代码非常快速。
|
2017-04-10 16:06:17 +08:00
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|
2017-05-12 22:52:45 +08:00
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当我们使用 trait 对象,编译器不能按单态类型处理,因为无法知道使用代码的所有可能类型。而是调用方法的时候,Rust 跟踪可能被使用的代码,在运行时找出调用该方法时应使用的代码。这也是我们熟知的 *dynamic dispatch*,查找过程会产生运行时开销。动态分发也会阻止编译器内联函数,失去一些优化途径。尽管获得了额外的灵活性,但仍然需要权衡取舍。
|
2017-04-10 16:06:17 +08:00
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|
|
|
|
### Trait 对象需要对象安全
|
2017-04-10 13:09:34 +08:00
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|
<!-- Liz: we're conflicted on including this section. Not being able to use a
|
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|
trait as a trait object because of object safety is something that
|
|
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|
|
beginner/intermediate Rust developers run into sometimes, but explaining it
|
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|
fully is long and complicated. Should we just cut this whole section? Leave it
|
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|
|
(and finish the explanation of how to fix the error at the end)? Shorten it to
|
|
|
|
|
a quick caveat, that just says something like "Some traits can't be trait
|
|
|
|
|
objects. Clone is an example of one. You'll get errors that will let you know
|
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|
if a trait can't be a trait object, look up object safety if you're interested
|
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|
|
|
in the details"? Thanks! /Carol -->
|
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|
|
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|
Not all traits can be made into trait objects; only *object safe* traits can. A
|
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|
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|
trait is object safe as long as both of the following are true:
|
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|
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|
* The trait does not require `Self` to be `Sized`
|
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|
|
* All of the trait's methods are object safe.
|
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|
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|
`Self` is a keyword that is an alias for the type that we're implementing
|
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|
|
traits or methods on. `Sized` is a marker trait like the `Send` and `Sync`
|
|
|
|
|
traits that we talked about in Chapter 16. `Sized` is automatically implemented
|
|
|
|
|
on types that have a known size at compile time, such as `i32` and references.
|
|
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|
|
Types that do not have a known size include slices (`[T]`) and trait objects.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
`Sized` is an implicit trait bound on all generic type parameters by default.
|
|
|
|
|
Most useful operations in Rust require a type to be `Sized`, so making `Sized`
|
|
|
|
|
a default requirement on trait bounds means we don't have to write `T: Sized`
|
|
|
|
|
with most every use of generics. If we want to be able to use a trait on
|
|
|
|
|
slices, however, we need to opt out of the `Sized` trait bound, and we can do
|
|
|
|
|
that by specifying `T: ?Sized` as a trait bound.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Traits have a default bound of `Self: ?Sized`, which means that they can be
|
|
|
|
|
implemented on types that may or may not be `Sized`. If we create a trait `Foo`
|
|
|
|
|
that opts out of the `Self: ?Sized` bound, that would look like the following:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
```rust
|
|
|
|
|
trait Foo: Sized {
|
|
|
|
|
fn some_method(&self);
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The trait `Sized` is now a *super trait* of trait `Foo`, which means trait
|
|
|
|
|
`Foo` requires types that implement `Foo` (that is, `Self`) to be `Sized`.
|
|
|
|
|
We're going to talk about super traits in more detail in Chapter 19.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The reason a trait like `Foo` that requires `Self` to be `Sized` is not allowed
|
|
|
|
|
to be a trait object is that it would be impossible to implement the trait
|
|
|
|
|
`Foo` for the trait object `Foo`: trait objects aren't sized, but `Foo`
|
|
|
|
|
requires `Self` to be `Sized`. A type can't be both sized and unsized at the
|
|
|
|
|
same time!
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
For the second object safety requirement that says all of a trait's methods
|
|
|
|
|
must be object safe, a method is object safe if either:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
* It requires `Self` to be `Sized` or
|
|
|
|
|
* It meets all three of the following:
|
|
|
|
|
* It must not have any generic type parameters
|
|
|
|
|
* Its first argument must be of type `Self` or a type that dereferences to
|
|
|
|
|
the Self type (that is, it must be a method rather than an associated
|
|
|
|
|
function and have `self`, `&self`, or `&mut self` as the first argument)
|
|
|
|
|
* It must not use `Self` anywhere else in the signature except for the
|
|
|
|
|
first argument
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Those rules are a bit formal, but think of it this way: if your method requires
|
|
|
|
|
the concrete `Self` type somewhere in its signature, but an object forgets the
|
|
|
|
|
exact type that it is, there's no way that the method can use the original
|
|
|
|
|
concrete type that it's forgotten. Same with generic type parameters that are
|
|
|
|
|
filled in with concrete type parameters when the trait is used: the concrete
|
|
|
|
|
types become part of the type that implements the trait. When the type is
|
|
|
|
|
erased by the use of a trait object, there's no way to know what types to fill
|
|
|
|
|
in the generic type parameters with.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
An example of a trait whose methods are not object safe is the standard
|
|
|
|
|
library's `Clone` trait. The signature for the `clone` method in the `Clone`
|
|
|
|
|
trait looks like this:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
```rust
|
|
|
|
|
pub trait Clone {
|
|
|
|
|
fn clone(&self) -> Self;
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
`String` implements the `Clone` trait, and when we call the `clone` method on
|
|
|
|
|
an instance of `String` we get back an instance of `String`. Similarly, if we
|
|
|
|
|
call `clone` on an instance of `Vec`, we get back an instance of `Vec`. The
|
|
|
|
|
signature of `clone` needs to know what type will stand in for `Self`, since
|
|
|
|
|
that's the return type.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
If we try to implement `Clone` on a trait like the `Draw` trait from Listing
|
|
|
|
|
17-3, we wouldn't know whether `Self` would end up being a `Button`, a
|
|
|
|
|
`SelectBox`, or some other type that will implement the `Draw` trait in the
|
|
|
|
|
future.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The compiler will tell you if you're trying to do something that violates the
|
|
|
|
|
rules of object safety in regards to trait objects. For example, if we had
|
|
|
|
|
tried to implement the `Screen` struct in Listing 17-4 to hold types that
|
|
|
|
|
implement the `Clone` trait instead of the `Draw` trait, like this:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
```rust,ignore
|
|
|
|
|
pub struct Screen {
|
|
|
|
|
pub components: Vec<Box<Clone>>,
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
We'll get this error:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
```text
|
|
|
|
|
error[E0038]: the trait `std::clone::Clone` cannot be made into an object
|
|
|
|
|
-->
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2 | pub components: Vec<Box<Clone>>,
|
|
|
|
|
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `std::clone::Clone` cannot be
|
|
|
|
|
made into an object
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
= note: the trait cannot require that `Self : Sized`
|
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<!-- If we are including this section, we would explain how to fix this
|
|
|
|
|
problem. It involves adding another trait and implementing Clone manually for
|
|
|
|
|
that trait. Because this section is getting long, I stopped because it feels
|
|
|
|
|
like we're off in the weeds with an esoteric detail that not everyone will need
|
|
|
|
|
to know about. /Carol -->
|