Merge pull request #13 from itfanr/master

ch17-02翻译完成90%

src/SUMMARY.md

@@ -94,5 +94,6 @@
 
 - [面向对象](ch17-00-oop.md)	
 	- [什么是面向对象](ch17-01-what-is-oo.md)
+	- [trait对象](ch17-02-trait-objects.md)
     
 	

src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md

@@ -0,0 +1,372 @@
+## 为使用不同类型的值而设计的Trait对象
+
+> [ch17-02-trait-objects.md](https://github.com/rust-lang/book/blob/master/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md)
+> <br>
+> commit 872dc793f7017f815fb1e5389200fd208e12792d
+
+ 在第8章，我们谈到了vector的局限是vectors只能存储同种类型的元素。我们在Listing 8-1有一个例子，其中定义了一个`SpreadsheetCell` 枚举类型，可以存储整形、浮点型和text，这样我们就可以在每个cell存储不同的数据类型了，同时还有一个代表一行cell的vector。当我们的代码编译的时候，如果交换地处理的各种东西是固定的类型是已知的，那么这是可行的。 
+
+```
+<!-- The code example I want to reference did not have a listing number; it's
+the one with SpreadsheetCell. I will go back and add Listing 8-1 next time I
+get Chapter 8 for editing. /Carol -->
+```
+
+有时，我们想我们使用的类型集合是可扩展的，可以被使用我们的库的程序员扩展。比如很多图形化接口工具有一个条目列表，从这个列表迭代和调用draw方法在每个条目上。我们将要创建一个库crate，包含称为`rust_gui`的CUI库的结构体。我们的GUI库可以包含一些给开发者使用的类型，比如`Button`或者`TextField`。使用`rust_gui`的程序员会创建更多可以在屏幕绘图的类型：一个程序员可能会增加`Image`，另外一个可能会增加`SelectBox`。我们不会在本章节实现一个完善的GUI库，但是我们会展示如何把各部分组合在一起。
+
+当要写一个`rust_gui`库时，我们不知道其他程序员要创建什么类型，所以我们无法定义一个`enum`来包含所有的类型。我们知道的是`rust_gui`需要有能力跟踪所有这些不同类型的大量的值，需要有能力在每个值上调用`draw`方法。我们的GUI库不需要确切地知道当调用`draw`方法时会发生什么，只要值有可用的方法供我们调用就可以。
+
+在有继承的语言里，我们可能会定义一个名为`Component`的类，该类上有一个`draw`方法。其他的类比如`Button`、`Image`和`SelectBox`会从`Component`继承并继承`draw`方法。它们会各自覆写`draw`方法来自定义行为，但是框架会把所有的类型当作是`Component`的实例，并在它们上调用`draw`。
+
+### 定义一个带有自定义行为的Trait
+
+不过，在Rust语言中，我们可以定义一个名为`Draw`的trait，其上有一个名为`draw`的方法。我们定义一个带有*trait对象*的vector，绑定了一种指针的trait，比如`&`引用或者一个`Box<T>`智能指针。
+
+我们提到，我们不会调用结构体和枚举的对象，从而区分于其他语言的对象。在结构体的数据或者枚举的字段和`impl`块中的行为是分开的，而其他语言则是数据和行为被组合到一个概念里。Trait对象更像其他语言的对象，在这种场景下，他们组合了由指针组成的数据到实体对象，该对象带有在trait中定义的方法行为。但是，trait对象是和其他语言是不同的，因为我们不能向一个trait对象增加数据。trait对象不像其他语言那样有用：它们的目的是允许从公有的行为上抽象。
+
+trait定义了在给定场景下我们所需要的行为。在我们会使用一个实体类型或者一个通用类型的地方，我们可以把trait当作trait对象使用。Rust的类型系统会保证我们为trait对象带入的任何值会实现trait的方法。我们不需要在编译阶段知道所有可能的类型，我们可以把所有的实例统一对待。Listing 17-03展示了如何定义一个名为`Draw`的带有`draw`方法的trait。
+
+<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+
+```rust
+pub trait Draw {
+    fn draw(&self);
+}
+```
+
+<span class="caption">Listing 17-3:`Draw` trait的定义</span>
+
+<!-- NEXT PARAGRAPH WRAPPED WEIRD INTENTIONALLY SEE #199 -->
+
+因为我们已经在第10章讨论过如何定义trait，你可能比较熟悉。下面是新的定义：Listing 17-4有一个名为`Screen`的结构体，里面有一个名为`components`的vector，`components`的类型是Box<Draw>。`Box<Draw>`是一个trait对象：它是一个任何`Box`内部的实现了`Draw`trait的类型的替身。
+
+<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+
+```rust
+# pub trait Draw {
+#     fn draw(&self);
+# }
+#
+pub struct Screen {
+    pub components: Vec<Box<Draw>>,
+}
+```
+
+<span class="caption">Listing 17-4: 定义一个`Screen`结构体，带有一个含有实现了`Draw`trait的`components` vector成员
+
+</span>
+
+在`Screen`结构体上，我们将要定义一个`run`方法，该方法会在它的`components`上调用`draw`方法，如Listing 17-5所示：
+
+<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+
+```rust
+# pub trait Draw {
+#     fn draw(&self);
+# }
+#
+# pub struct Screen {
+#     pub components: Vec<Box<Draw>>,
+# }
+#
+impl Screen {
+    pub fn run(&self) {
+        for component in self.components.iter() {
+            component.draw();
+        }
+    }
+}
+```
+
+<span class="caption">Listing 17-5:在`Screen`上实现一个`run`方法，该方法在每个组件上调用`draw`方法
+</span>
+
+这是区别于定义一个使用带有trait绑定的通用类型参数的结构体。通用类型参数一次只能被一个实体类型替代，而trait对象可以在运行时允许多种实体类型填充trait对象。比如，我们已经定义了`Screen`结构体使用通用类型和一个trait绑定，如Listing 17-6所示：
+
+<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+
+```rust
+# pub trait Draw {
+#     fn draw(&self);
+# }
+#
+pub struct Screen<T: Draw> {
+    pub components: Vec<T>,
+}
+
+impl<T> Screen<T>
+    where T: Draw {
+    pub fn run(&self) {
+        for component in self.components.iter() {
+            component.draw();
+        }
+    }
+}
+```
+
+<span class="caption">Listing 17-6: 一种`Screen`结构体的替代实现，它的`run`方法使用通用类型和trait绑定
+</span>
+ 
+这个例子只能使我们有一个`Screen`实例，这个实例有一个组件列表，所有的组件类型是`Button`或者`TextField`。如果你有同种的集合，那么可以优先使用通用和trait绑定，这是因为为了使用具体的类型，定义是在编译阶段是单一的。
+
+而如果使用内部有`Vec<Box<Draw>>` trait对象的列表的`Screen`结构体，`Screen`实例可以同时包含`Box<Button>`和`Box<TextField>`的`Vec`。我们看它是怎么工作的，然后讨论运行时性能的实现。
+
+### 来自我们或者库使用者的实现
+
+现在，我们增加一些实现了`Draw`trait的类型。我们会再次提供`Button`，实际上实现一个GUI库超出了本书的范围，所以`draw`方法的内部不会有任何有用的实现。为了想象一下实现可能的样子，`Button`结构体可能有 width`、`height`和`label`字段，如Listing 17-7所示：
+
+<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+
+```rust
+# pub trait Draw {
+#     fn draw(&self);
+# }
+#
+pub struct Button {
+    pub width: u32,
+    pub height: u32,
+    pub label: String,
+}
+
+impl Draw for Button {
+    fn draw(&self) {
+        // Code to actually draw a button
+    }
+}
+```
+
+<span class="caption">Listing 17-7: 实现了`Draw` trait的`Button` 结构体</span>
+
+在`Button`上的 `width`、`height`和`label`会和其他组件不同，比如`TextField`可能有`width`、`height`,
+`label`和 `placeholder`字段。每个我们可以在屏幕上绘制的类型会实现`Draw`trait，在`draw`方法中使用不同的代码，定义了如何绘制`Button`（GUI代码的具体实现超出了本章节的范围）。除了`Draw` trait，`Button`可能也有另一个`impl`块，包含了当按钮被点击的时候的响应方法。这类方法不适用于`TextField`这样的类型。
+
+有时，使用我们的库决定了实现一个包含`width`、`height`和`options``SelectBox`结构体。它们在`SelectBox`类型上实现了`Draw`trait，如 Listing 17-8所示：
+
+<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+
+```rust,ignore
+extern crate rust_gui;
+use rust_gui::Draw;
+
+struct SelectBox {
+    width: u32,
+    height: u32,
+    options: Vec<String>,
+}
+
+impl Draw for SelectBox {
+    fn draw(&self) {
+        // Code to actually draw a select box
+    }
+}
+```
+
+<span class="caption">Listing 17-8: 另外一个crate中，在`SelectBox`结构体上使用`rust_gui`和实现了`Draw` trait
+</span>
+
+我们的库的使用者现在可以写他们的`main`函数来创建一个`Screen`实例，然后通过把自身放入`Box<T>`变成trait对象，向screen增加`SelectBox` 和`Button`。它们可以在每个`Screen`实例上调用`run`方法，这会调用每个组件的`draw`方法。 Listing 17-9展示了实现：
+
+<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+
+```rust,ignore
+use rust_gui::{Screen, Button};
+
+fn main() {
+    let screen = Screen {
+        components: vec![
+            Box::new(SelectBox {
+                width: 75,
+                height: 10,
+                options: vec![
+                    String::from("Yes"),
+                    String::from("Maybe"),
+                    String::from("No")
+                ],
+            }),
+            Box::new(Button {
+                width: 50,
+                height: 10,
+                label: String::from("OK"),
+            }),
+        ],
+    };
+
+    screen.run();
+}
+```
+
+<span class="caption">Listing 17-9: 使用trait对象来存储实现了相同trait的不同类型
+</span>
+
+虽然我们不知道有些人可能有一天会增加`SelectBox`类型，但是我们的`Screen` 有能力操作`SelectBox`和绘制，因为`SelectBox`实现了`Draw`类型，这意味着它实现了`draw`方法。
+
+只关心值响应的消息，而不关心值的具体类型，这类似于动态类型语言中的*duck typing*：如果它像鸭子一样走路，像鸭子一样叫，那么它肯定是只鸭子！在Listing 17-5的`Screen`的`run`方法的实现中，`run`不需要知道每个组件的具体类型。它也不检查是否一个组件是`Button`或者`SelectBox`的实例，只是调用组件的`draw`方法即可。通过指定`Box<Draw>`作为`components`vector中的值类型，我们定义了：`Screen`需要可以被调用其`draw`方法的值。
+
+使用trait对象和支持duck typing的Rust类型系统的好处是，我们永远不需要在运行时检查一个值是否实现了一个特殊方法，或者担心因为调用了一个值没有实现方法而遇到错误。如果值没有实现trait对象需要的trait，Rust不会编译我们的代码。
+
+比如，Listing 17-10展示了当我们创建一个把`String`当做其成员的`Screen`时发生的情况：
+
+<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+
+```rust,ignore
+extern crate rust_gui;
+use rust_gui::Draw;
+
+fn main() {
+    let screen = Screen {
+        components: vec![
+            Box::new(String::from("Hi")),
+        ],
+    };
+
+    screen.run();
+}
+```
+
+<span class="caption">Listing 17-10: 尝试使用一种没有实现trait对象的trait的类型
+
+</span>
+
+我们会遇到这个错误，因为`String`没有实现 `Draw`trait：
+
+```text
+error[E0277]: the trait bound `std::string::String: Draw` is not satisfied
+  -->
+   |
+ 4 |             Box::new(String::from("Hi")),
+   |             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Draw` is not
+   implemented for `std::string::String`
+   |
+   = note: required for the cast to the object type `Draw`
+```
+
+这个报错让我们知道，或者我们传入了本来不想传给`Screen`的东西，我们应该传入一个不同的类型，或者是我们应该在`String`上实现`Draw`，这样，`Screen`才能调用它的`draw`方法。
+
+### Trait对象执行动态分发
+
+回忆一下第10章，我们讨论过当我们使用通用类型的trait绑定时，编译器执行单类型的处理过程：在我们需要使用通用类型参数的地方，编译器为每个实体类型产生了非通用的函数实现和方法。由于非单类型而产生的代码是 *static dispatch*：当方法被调用，代码会执行在编译阶段就决定的方法，这样寻找那段代码是非常快速的。
+
+当我们使用trait对象，编译器不能执行单类型的，因为我们不知道可能被代码调用的类型。而，当方法被调用的时候，Rust跟踪可能被使用的代码，然后在运行时找出为了方法被调用时该使用哪些代码。这也是我们熟知的*dynamic dispatch*，当运行时的查找发生时是比较耗费资源的。动态分发也防止编译器选择内联函数的代码，这样防止了一些优化。虽然我们写代码时得到了额外的代码灵活性，不过，这是一个权衡考虑。
+
+### Trait 对象需要对象安全
+
+<!-- Liz: we're conflicted on including this section. Not being able to use a
+trait as a trait object because of object safety is something that
+beginner/intermediate Rust developers run into sometimes, but explaining it
+fully is long and complicated. Should we just cut this whole section? Leave it
+(and finish the explanation of how to fix the error at the end)? Shorten it to
+a quick caveat, that just says something like "Some traits can't be trait
+objects. Clone is an example of one. You'll get errors that will let you know
+if a trait can't be a trait object, look up object safety if you're interested
+in the details"? Thanks! /Carol -->
+
+Not all traits can be made into trait objects; only *object safe* traits can. A
+trait is object safe as long as both of the following are true:
+
+* The trait does not require `Self` to be `Sized`
+* All of the trait's methods are object safe.
+
+`Self` is a keyword that is an alias for the type that we're implementing
+traits or methods on. `Sized` is a marker trait like the `Send` and `Sync`
+traits that we talked about in Chapter 16. `Sized` is automatically implemented
+on types that have a known size at compile time, such as `i32` and references.
+Types that do not have a known size include slices (`[T]`) and trait objects.
+
+`Sized` is an implicit trait bound on all generic type parameters by default.
+Most useful operations in Rust require a type to be `Sized`, so making `Sized`
+a default requirement on trait bounds means we don't have to write `T: Sized`
+with most every use of generics. If we want to be able to use a trait on
+slices, however, we need to opt out of the `Sized` trait bound, and we can do
+that by specifying `T: ?Sized` as a trait bound.
+
+Traits have a default bound of `Self: ?Sized`, which means that they can be
+implemented on types that may or may not be `Sized`. If we create a trait `Foo`
+that opts out of the `Self: ?Sized` bound, that would look like the following:
+
+```rust
+trait Foo: Sized {
+    fn some_method(&self);
+}
+```
+
+The trait `Sized` is now a *super trait* of trait `Foo`, which means trait
+`Foo` requires types that implement `Foo` (that is, `Self`) to be `Sized`.
+We're going to talk about super traits in more detail in Chapter 19.
+
+The reason a trait like `Foo` that requires `Self` to be `Sized` is not allowed
+to be a trait object is that it would be impossible to implement the trait
+`Foo` for the trait object `Foo`: trait objects aren't sized, but `Foo`
+requires `Self` to be `Sized`. A type can't be both sized and unsized at the
+same time!
+
+For the second object safety requirement that says all of a trait's methods
+must be object safe, a method is object safe if either:
+
+* It requires `Self` to be `Sized` or
+* It meets all three of the following:
+    * It must not have any generic type parameters
+    * Its first argument must be of type `Self` or a type that dereferences to
+      the Self type (that is, it must be a method rather than an associated
+      function and have `self`, `&self`, or `&mut self` as the first argument)
+    * It must not use `Self` anywhere else in the signature except for the
+      first argument
+
+Those rules are a bit formal, but think of it this way: if your method requires
+the concrete `Self` type somewhere in its signature, but an object forgets the
+exact type that it is, there's no way that the method can use the original
+concrete type that it's forgotten. Same with generic type parameters that are
+filled in with concrete type parameters when the trait is used: the concrete
+types become part of the type that implements the trait. When the type is
+erased by the use of a trait object, there's no way to know what types to fill
+in the generic type parameters with.
+
+An example of a trait whose methods are not object safe is the standard
+library's `Clone` trait. The signature for the `clone` method in the `Clone`
+trait looks like this:
+
+```rust
+pub trait Clone {
+    fn clone(&self) -> Self;
+}
+```
+
+`String` implements the `Clone` trait, and when we call the `clone` method on
+an instance of `String` we get back an instance of `String`. Similarly, if we
+call `clone` on an instance of `Vec`, we get back an instance of `Vec`. The
+signature of `clone` needs to know what type will stand in for `Self`, since
+that's the return type.
+
+If we try to implement `Clone` on a trait like the `Draw` trait from Listing
+17-3, we wouldn't know whether `Self` would end up being a `Button`, a
+`SelectBox`, or some other type that will implement the `Draw` trait in the
+future.
+
+The compiler will tell you if you're trying to do something that violates the
+rules of object safety in regards to trait objects. For example, if we had
+tried to implement the `Screen` struct in Listing 17-4 to hold types that
+implement the `Clone` trait instead of the `Draw` trait, like this:
+
+```rust,ignore
+pub struct Screen {
+    pub components: Vec<Box<Clone>>,
+}
+```
+
+We'll get this error:
+
+```text
+error[E0038]: the trait `std::clone::Clone` cannot be made into an object
+ -->
+  |
+2 |     pub components: Vec<Box<Clone>>,
+  |     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `std::clone::Clone` cannot be
+  made into an object
+  |
+  = note: the trait cannot require that `Self : Sized`
+```
+
+<!-- If we are including this section, we would explain how to fix this
+problem. It involves adding another trait and implementing Clone manually for
+that trait. Because this section is getting long, I stopped because it feels
+like we're off in the weeds with an esoteric detail that not everyone will need
+to know about. /Carol -->