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<ol class="chapter"><li class="chapter-item expanded affix "><a href="title-page.html">Rust 程序设计语言</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded affix "><a href="foreword.html">前言</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded affix "><a href="ch00-00-introduction.html">简介</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch01-00-getting-started.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.</strong> 入门指南</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch01-01-installation.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.1.</strong> 安装</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch01-02-hello-world.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.2.</strong> Hello, World!</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch01-03-hello-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.3.</strong> Hello, Cargo!</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.</strong> 写个猜数字游戏</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch03-00-common-programming-concepts.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.</strong> 常见编程概念</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.1.</strong> 变量与可变性</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch03-02-data-types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.2.</strong> 数据类型</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch03-03-how-functions-work.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.3.</strong> 函数</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch03-04-comments.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.4.</strong> 注释</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch03-05-control-flow.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.5.</strong> 控制流</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch04-00-understanding-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.</strong> 认识所有权</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.1.</strong> 什么是所有权?</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.2.</strong> 引用与借用</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch04-03-slices.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.3.</strong> Slice 类型</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch05-00-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.</strong> 使用结构体组织相关联的数据</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch05-01-defining-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.</strong> 结构体的定义和实例化</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch05-02-example-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.2.</strong> 结构体示例程序</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch05-03-method-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.3.</strong> 方法语法</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch06-00-enums.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.</strong> 枚举和模式匹配</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch06-01-defining-an-enum.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.1.</strong> 枚举的定义</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch06-02-match.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.</strong> match 控制流结构</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch06-03-if-let.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.3.</strong> if let 简洁控制流</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.</strong> 使用包、Crate 和模块管理不断增长的项目</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch07-01-packages-and-crates.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.1.</strong> 包和 Crate</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.2.</strong> 定义模块来控制作用域与私有性</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.3.</strong> 引用模块项目的路径</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.4.</strong> 使用 use 关键字将路径引入作用域</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.5.</strong> 将模块拆分成多个文件</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch08-00-common-collections.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.</strong> 常见集合</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch08-01-vectors.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.1.</strong> 使用 Vector 储存列表</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch08-02-strings.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.2.</strong> 使用字符串储存 UTF-8 编码的文本</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch08-03-hash-maps.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.3.</strong> 使用 Hash Map 储存键值对</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch09-00-error-handling.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.</strong> 错误处理</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.1.</strong> 用 panic! 处理不可恢复的错误</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.2.</strong> 用 Result 处理可恢复的错误</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.3.</strong> 要不要 panic!</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch10-00-generics.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.</strong> 泛型、Trait 和生命周期</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch10-01-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.1.</strong> 泛型数据类型</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch10-02-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.2.</strong> Trait:定义共同行为</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.3.</strong> 生命周期确保引用有效</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch11-00-testing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.</strong> 编写自动化测试</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch11-01-writing-tests.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.1.</strong> 如何编写测试</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch11-02-running-tests.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.2.</strong> 控制测试如何运行</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch11-03-test-organization.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.3.</strong> 测试的组织结构</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch12-00-an-io-project.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.</strong> 一个 I/O 项目:构建命令行程序</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.1.</strong> 接受命令行参数</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch12-02-reading-a-file.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.2.</strong> 读取文件</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.3.</strong> 重构以改进模块化与错误处理</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.4.</strong> 采用测试驱动开发完善库的功能</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.5.</strong> 处理环境变量</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch12-06-writing-to-stderr-instead-of-stdout.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.6.</strong> 将错误信息输出到标准错误而不是标准输出</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch13-00-functional-features.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.</strong> Rust 中的函数式语言功能:迭代器与闭包</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch13-01-closures.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.1.</strong> 闭包:可以捕获其环境的匿名函数</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch13-02-iterators.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.2.</strong> 使用迭代器处理元素序列</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.3.</strong> 改进之前的 I/O 项目</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch13-04-performance.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.4.</strong> 性能比较:循环对迭代器</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch14-00-more-about-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.</strong> 更多关于 Cargo 和 Crates.io 的内容</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch14-01-release-profiles.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.1.</strong> 采用发布配置自定义构建</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.2.</strong> 将 crate 发布到 Crates.io</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch14-03-cargo-workspaces.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.3.</strong> Cargo 工作空间</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch14-04-installing-binaries.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.4.</strong> 使用 cargo install 安装二进制文件</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch14-05-extending-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.5.</strong> Cargo 自定义扩展命令</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch15-00-smart-pointers.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.</strong> 智能指针</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch15-01-box.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.1.</strong> 使用 Box<T> 指向堆上数据</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch15-02-deref.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.2.</strong> 使用 Deref Trait 将智能指针当作常规引用处理</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch15-03-drop.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.3.</strong> 使用 Drop Trait 运行清理代码</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch15-04-rc.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.4.</strong> Rc<T> 引用计数智能指针</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch15-05-interior-mutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.5.</strong> RefCell<T> 与内部可变性模式</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch15-06-reference-cycles.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.6.</strong> 引用循环会导致内存泄漏</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch16-00-concurrency.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.</strong> 无畏并发</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch16-01-threads.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.1.</strong> 使用线程同时地运行代码</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch16-02-message-passing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.2.</strong> 使用消息传递在线程间通信</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch16-03-shared-state.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.3.</strong> 共享状态并发</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.4.</strong> 使用 Sync 与 Send Traits 的可扩展并发</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch17-00-async-await.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.</strong> Async 和 await</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.1.</strong> Futures 和 async 语法</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.2.</strong> 并发与 async</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch17-03-more-futures.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.3.</strong> 使用任意数量的 futures</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch17-04-streams.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.4.</strong> 流(Streams)</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch17-05-traits-for-async.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.5.</strong> 深入理解 async 相关的 traits</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.6.</strong> Futures,任务(tasks)和线程(threads)</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch18-00-oop.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.</strong> Rust 的面向对象编程特性</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch18-01-what-is-oo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.1.</strong> 面向对象语言的特点</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch18-02-trait-objects.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.2.</strong> 顾及不同类型值的 trait 对象</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.3.</strong> 面向对象设计模式的实现</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch19-00-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.</strong> 模式与模式匹配</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.1.</strong> 所有可能会用到模式的位置</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch19-02-refutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.2.</strong> Refutability(可反驳性): 模式是否会匹配失效</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.3.</strong> 模式语法</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch20-00-advanced-features.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.</strong> 高级特征</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.1.</strong> 不安全的 Rust</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch20-03-advanced-traits.html" class="active"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.2.</strong> 高级 trait</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch20-04-advanced-types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.3.</strong> 高级类型</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.4.</strong> 高级函数与闭包</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch20-06-macros.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.5.</strong> 宏</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.</strong> 最后的项目:构建多线程 web server</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch21-01-single-threaded.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.1.</strong> 建立单线程 web server</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch21-02-multithreaded.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.2.</strong> 将单线程 server 变为多线程 server</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.3.</strong> 优雅停机与清理</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="appendix-00.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">22.</strong> 附录</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="appendix-01-keywords.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">22.1.</strong> A - 关键字</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="appendix-02-operators.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">22.2.</strong> B - 运算符与符号</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="appendix-03-derivable-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">22.3.</strong> C - 可派生的 trait</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="appendix-04-useful-development-tools.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">22.4.</strong> D - 实用开发工具</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="appendix-05-editions.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">22.5.</strong> E - 版本</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="appendix-06-translation.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">22.6.</strong> F - 本书译本</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="appendix-07-nightly-rust.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">22.7.</strong> G - Rust 是如何开发的与 “Nightly Rust”</a></li></ol></li></ol>
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<h2 id="高级-trait"><a class="header" href="#高级-trait">高级 trait</a></h2>
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<blockquote>
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<p><a href="https://github.com/rust-lang/book/blob/main/src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md">ch20-03-advanced-traits.md</a>
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<br>
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commit 95e931170404cb98d476b19017cbbdbc00d0834d</p>
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</blockquote>
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<p>第十章 <a href="ch10-02-traits.html#trait%E5%AE%9A%E4%B9%89%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E8%A1%8C%E4%B8%BA">“trait:定义共同行为”</a> 部分,我们第一次涉及到了 trait,不过我们并没有覆盖一些较为高级的细节。现在我们更加了解 Rust 了,可以深入理解其本质了。</p>
|
||
<h3 id="关联类型在-trait-定义中指定占位符类型"><a class="header" href="#关联类型在-trait-定义中指定占位符类型">关联类型在 trait 定义中指定占位符类型</a></h3>
|
||
<p><strong>关联类型</strong>(<em>associated types</em>)让我们可以在 trait 里面增加一个待定义的类型(类型占位符),将类型占位符与 trait 相关联,这样 trait 的方法签名中就可以使用这些占位符类型。trait 的实现者在实现这个 trait 的时候,会指定一个具体类型,来替换掉这个占位符。这样,我们可以在一个 trait 中通过占位符使用不同类型,在实现此 trait 时才需要指定这些类型具体是什么。</p>
|
||
<p>我们之前提到,本章所描述的大部分内容都较少使用。关联类型则比较适中;它们比本书其他的内容要少见,不过比本章中的很多内容要更常见。</p>
|
||
<p>一个带有关联类型的 trait 的例子是标准库提供的 <code>Iterator</code> trait。它有一个叫做 <code>Item</code> 的关联类型来替代遍历的值的类型。<code>Iterator</code> trait 的定义如示例 19-12 所示:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust noplayground">pub trait Iterator {
|
||
type Item;
|
||
|
||
fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item>;
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<p><span class="caption">示例 19-12: <code>Iterator</code> trait 的定义中带有关联类型 <code>Item</code></span></p>
|
||
<p><code>Item</code> 是一个占位符类型,同时 <code>next</code> 方法的定义表明它返回 <code>Option<Self::Item></code> 类型的值。这个 trait 的实现者会指定 <code>Item</code> 的具体类型,无论实现者指定何种类型,<code>next</code> 方法都会返回一个包含了此具体类型值的 <code>Option</code>。</p>
|
||
<p>关联类型看起来有点像泛型:后者允许定义一个函数时,暂不指定其可以处理的类型。为了体现这两者的区别,请看下面的例子。
|
||
这个例子为 <code>Counter</code> 结构体实现了 <code>Iterator</code> trait,其中指定 <code>Item</code> 的类型为 <code>u32</code>:</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/lib.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore"><span class="boring">struct Counter {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> count: u32,
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Counter {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn new() -> Counter {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> Counter { count: 0 }
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span>impl Iterator for Counter {
|
||
type Item = u32;
|
||
|
||
fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
|
||
// --snip--
|
||
<span class="boring"> if self.count < 5 {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> self.count += 1;
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> Some(self.count)
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> } else {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> None
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}</span></code></pre>
|
||
<p>这个语法类似于泛型。那么为什么 <code>Iterator</code> trait 不像下面示例 19-13 那样,使用泛型来定义呢?</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust noplayground">pub trait Iterator<T> {
|
||
fn next(&mut self) -> Option<T>;
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<p><span class="caption">示例 19-13: 一个使用泛型的 <code>Iterator</code> trait 假想定义</span></p>
|
||
<p>区别在于当如示例 19-13 那样使用泛型时,则不得不在每一个实现中标注类型。这是因为我们也可以实现为 <code>Iterator<String> for Counter</code>,或任何其他类型,这样就可以有多个 <code>Counter</code> 的 <code>Iterator</code> 的实现。换句话说,当 trait 有泛型参数时,可以多次实现这个 trait,每次需改变泛型参数的具体类型。接着当使用 <code>Counter</code> 的 <code>next</code> 方法时,必须提供类型注解来表明希望使用 <code>Iterator</code> 的哪一个实现。</p>
|
||
<p>有了关联类型,在实现时就无需标注类型,因为不能多次实现这个 trait。对于示例 19-12 使用关联类型的定义,我们只能选择一次 <code>Item</code> 会是什么类型,因为只能有一个 <code>impl Iterator for Counter</code>。当调用 <code>Counter</code> 的 <code>next</code> 时不必每次指定我们需要 <code>u32</code> 值的迭代器。</p>
|
||
<p>关联类型也会成为 trait 契约的一部分:trait 的实现必须提供一个类型来替代关联类型占位符。关联类型通常以它的用途来命名,并且我们最好在 API 文档中为关联类型编写文档。</p>
|
||
<h3 id="默认泛型类型参数和运算符重载"><a class="header" href="#默认泛型类型参数和运算符重载">默认泛型类型参数和运算符重载</a></h3>
|
||
<p>当使用泛型类型参数时,可以为泛型指定一个默认的具体类型。如果默认类型就足够的话,这消除了为具体类型实现 trait 的需要。为泛型类型指定默认类型的语法是在声明泛型类型时使用 <code><PlaceholderType=ConcreteType></code>。</p>
|
||
<p>这种情况的一个非常好的例子是使用 <strong>运算符重载</strong>(<em>Operator overloading</em>),这是指在特定情况下自定义运算符(比如 <code>+</code>)行为的操作。</p>
|
||
<p>Rust 并不允许创建自定义运算符或重载任意运算符,不过 <code>std::ops</code> 中所列出的运算符和相应的 trait 可以通过实现运算符相关 trait 来重载。例如,示例 19-14 中展示了如何在 <code>Point</code> 结构体上实现 <code>Add</code> trait 来重载 <code>+</code> 运算符,这样就可以将两个 <code>Point</code> 实例相加了:</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/main.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021">use std::ops::Add;
|
||
|
||
#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq)]
|
||
struct Point {
|
||
x: i32,
|
||
y: i32,
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
impl Add for Point {
|
||
type Output = Point;
|
||
|
||
fn add(self, other: Point) -> Point {
|
||
Point {
|
||
x: self.x + other.x,
|
||
y: self.y + other.y,
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
fn main() {
|
||
assert_eq!(
|
||
Point { x: 1, y: 0 } + Point { x: 2, y: 3 },
|
||
Point { x: 3, y: 3 }
|
||
);
|
||
}</code></pre></pre>
|
||
<p><span class="caption">示例 19-14: 实现 <code>Add</code> trait 重载 <code>Point</code> 实例的 <code>+</code> 运算符</span></p>
|
||
<p><code>add</code> 方法将两个 <code>Point</code> 实例的 <code>x</code> 值和 <code>y</code> 值分别相加来创建一个新的 <code>Point</code>。<code>Add</code> trait 有一个叫做 <code>Output</code> 的关联类型,它用来决定 <code>add</code> 方法的返回值类型。</p>
|
||
<p>这里默认泛型类型位于 <code>Add</code> trait 中。这里是其定义:</p>
|
||
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
||
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
||
</span>trait Add<Rhs=Self> {
|
||
type Output;
|
||
|
||
fn add(self, rhs: Rhs) -> Self::Output;
|
||
}
|
||
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
||
<p>这些代码看来应该很熟悉,这是一个带有一个方法和一个关联类型的 trait。比较陌生的部分是尖括号中的 <code>Rhs=Self</code>:这个语法叫做 <strong>默认类型参数</strong>(<em>default type parameters</em>)。<code>Rhs</code> 是一个泛型类型参数(“right hand side” 的缩写),它用于定义 <code>add</code> 方法中的 <code>rhs</code> 参数。如果实现 <code>Add</code> trait 时不指定 <code>Rhs</code> 的具体类型,<code>Rhs</code> 的类型将是默认的 <code>Self</code> 类型,也就是在其上实现 <code>Add</code> 的类型。</p>
|
||
<p>当为 <code>Point</code> 实现 <code>Add</code> 时,使用了默认的 <code>Rhs</code>,因为我们希望将两个 <code>Point</code> 实例相加。让我们看看一个实现 <code>Add</code> trait 时希望自定义 <code>Rhs</code> 类型而不是使用默认类型的例子。</p>
|
||
<p>这里有两个存放不同单元值的结构体,<code>Millimeters</code> 和 <code>Meters</code>。(这种将现有类型简单封装进另一个结构体的方式被称为 <strong>newtype 模式</strong>(<em>newtype pattern</em>,之后的 <a href="ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#newtype-%E6%A8%A1%E5%BC%8F%E7%94%A8%E4%BB%A5%E5%9C%A8%E5%A4%96%E9%83%A8%E7%B1%BB%E5%9E%8B%E4%B8%8A%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%E5%A4%96%E9%83%A8-trait">“为了类型安全和抽象而使用 newtype 模式”</a> 部分会详细介绍。)我们希望能够将毫米值与米值相加,并让 <code>Add</code> 的实现正确处理转换。可以为 <code>Millimeters</code> 实现 <code>Add</code> 并以 <code>Meters</code> 作为 <code>Rhs</code>,如示例 19-15 所示。</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/lib.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust noplayground">use std::ops::Add;
|
||
|
||
struct Millimeters(u32);
|
||
struct Meters(u32);
|
||
|
||
impl Add<Meters> for Millimeters {
|
||
type Output = Millimeters;
|
||
|
||
fn add(self, other: Meters) -> Millimeters {
|
||
Millimeters(self.0 + (other.0 * 1000))
|
||
}
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<p><span class="caption">示例 19-15: 在 <code>Millimeters</code> 上实现 <code>Add</code>,以便能够将 <code>Millimeters</code> 与 <code>Meters</code> 相加</span></p>
|
||
<p>为了使 <code>Millimeters</code> 和 <code>Meters</code> 能够相加,我们指定 <code>impl Add<Meters></code> 来设定 <code>Rhs</code> 类型参数的值而不是使用默认的 <code>Self</code>。</p>
|
||
<p>默认参数类型主要用于如下两个方面:</p>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>扩展类型而不破坏现有代码。</li>
|
||
<li>在大部分用户都不需要的特定情况进行自定义。</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<p>标准库的 <code>Add</code> trait 就是一个第二个目的例子:大部分时候你会将两个相似的类型相加,不过它提供了自定义额外行为的能力。在 <code>Add</code> trait 定义中使用默认类型参数意味着大部分时候无需指定额外的参数。换句话说,一小部分实现的样板代码是不必要的,这样使用 trait 就更容易了。</p>
|
||
<p>第一个目的是相似的,但过程是反过来的:如果需要为现有 trait 增加类型参数,为其提供一个默认类型将允许我们在不破坏现有实现代码的基础上扩展 trait 的功能。</p>
|
||
<h3 id="完全限定语法与消歧义调用相同名称的方法"><a class="header" href="#完全限定语法与消歧义调用相同名称的方法">完全限定语法与消歧义:调用相同名称的方法</a></h3>
|
||
<p>Rust 既不能避免一个 trait 与另一个 trait 拥有相同名称的方法,也不能阻止为同一类型同时实现这两个 trait。甚至直接在类型上实现开始已经有的同名方法也是可能的!</p>
|
||
<p>不过,当调用这些同名方法时,需要告诉 Rust 我们希望使用哪一个。考虑一下示例 19-16 中的代码,这里定义了 trait <code>Pilot</code> 和 <code>Wizard</code> 都拥有方法 <code>fly</code>。接着在一个本身已经实现了名为 <code>fly</code> 方法的类型 <code>Human</code> 上实现这两个 trait。每一个 <code>fly</code> 方法都进行了不同的操作:</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/main.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021">trait Pilot {
|
||
fn fly(&self);
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
trait Wizard {
|
||
fn fly(&self);
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
struct Human;
|
||
|
||
impl Pilot for Human {
|
||
fn fly(&self) {
|
||
println!("This is your captain speaking.");
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
impl Wizard for Human {
|
||
fn fly(&self) {
|
||
println!("Up!");
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
impl Human {
|
||
fn fly(&self) {
|
||
println!("*waving arms furiously*");
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
<span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
||
<p><span class="caption">示例 19-16: 两个 trait 定义为拥有 <code>fly</code> 方法,并在直接定义有 <code>fly</code> 方法的 <code>Human</code> 类型上实现这两个 trait</span></p>
|
||
<p>当调用 <code>Human</code> 实例的 <code>fly</code> 时,编译器默认调用直接实现在类型上的方法,如示例 19-17 所示。</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/main.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">trait Pilot {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn fly(&self);
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">trait Wizard {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn fly(&self);
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">struct Human;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Pilot for Human {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn fly(&self) {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("This is your captain speaking.");
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Wizard for Human {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn fly(&self) {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("Up!");
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Human {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn fly(&self) {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("*waving arms furiously*");
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span>fn main() {
|
||
let person = Human;
|
||
person.fly();
|
||
}</code></pre></pre>
|
||
<p><span class="caption">示例 19-17: 调用 <code>Human</code> 实例的 <code>fly</code></span></p>
|
||
<p>运行这段代码会打印出 <code>*waving arms furiously*</code>,这表明 Rust 调用了直接实现在 <code>Human</code> 上的 <code>fly</code> 方法。</p>
|
||
<p>为了能够调用 <code>Pilot</code> trait 或 <code>Wizard</code> trait 的 <code>fly</code> 方法,我们需要使用更明显的语法以便能指定我们指的是哪个 <code>fly</code> 方法。这个语法展示在示例 19-18 中:</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/main.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">trait Pilot {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn fly(&self);
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">trait Wizard {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn fly(&self);
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">struct Human;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Pilot for Human {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn fly(&self) {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("This is your captain speaking.");
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Wizard for Human {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn fly(&self) {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("Up!");
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Human {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn fly(&self) {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("*waving arms furiously*");
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span>fn main() {
|
||
let person = Human;
|
||
Pilot::fly(&person);
|
||
Wizard::fly(&person);
|
||
person.fly();
|
||
}</code></pre></pre>
|
||
<p><span class="caption">示例 19-18: 指定我们希望调用哪一个 trait 的 <code>fly</code> 方法</span></p>
|
||
<p>在方法名前指定 trait 名向 Rust 澄清了我们希望调用哪个 <code>fly</code> 实现。也可以选择写成 <code>Human::fly(&person)</code>,这等同于示例 19-18 中的 <code>person.fly()</code>,不过如果无需消歧义的话这么写就有点长了。</p>
|
||
<p>运行这段代码会打印出:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-console">$ cargo run
|
||
Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example)
|
||
Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.46s
|
||
Running `target/debug/traits-example`
|
||
This is your captain speaking.
|
||
Up!
|
||
*waving arms furiously*
|
||
</code></pre>
|
||
<p>因为 <code>fly</code> 方法获取一个 <code>self</code> 参数,如果有两个 <strong>类型</strong> 都实现了同一 <strong>trait</strong>,Rust 可以根据 <code>self</code> 的类型计算出应该使用哪一个 trait 实现。</p>
|
||
<p>然而,不是方法的关联函数没有 <code>self</code> 参数。当存在多个类型或者 trait 定义了相同函数名的非方法函数时,Rust 就不总是能计算出我们期望的是哪一个类型,除非使用 <strong>完全限定语法</strong>(<em>fully qualified syntax</em>)。例如示例 19-19 中的创建了一个希望将所有小狗叫做 <em>Spot</em> 的动物收容所的 trait。<code>Animal</code> trait 有一个关联非方法函数 <code>baby_name</code>。结构体 <code>Dog</code> 实现了 <code>Animal</code>,同时又直接提供了关联非方法函数 <code>baby_name</code>。</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/main.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021">trait Animal {
|
||
fn baby_name() -> String;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
struct Dog;
|
||
|
||
impl Dog {
|
||
fn baby_name() -> String {
|
||
String::from("Spot")
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
impl Animal for Dog {
|
||
fn baby_name() -> String {
|
||
String::from("puppy")
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
fn main() {
|
||
println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Dog::baby_name());
|
||
}</code></pre></pre>
|
||
<p><span class="caption">示例 19-19: 一个带有关联函数的 trait 和一个带有同名关联函数并实现了此 trait 的类型</span></p>
|
||
<p><code>Dog</code> 上定义的关联函数 <code>baby_name</code> 的实现代码将所有的小狗起名为 Spot。<code>Dog</code> 类型还实现了 <code>Animal</code> trait,它描述了所有动物的共有的特征。小狗被称为 puppy,这表现为 <code>Dog</code> 的 <code>Animal</code> trait 实现中与 <code>Animal</code> trait 相关联的函数 <code>baby_name</code>。</p>
|
||
<p>在 <code>main</code> 调用了 <code>Dog::baby_name</code> 函数,它直接调用了定义于 <code>Dog</code> 之上的关联函数。这段代码会打印出:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-console">$ cargo run
|
||
Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example)
|
||
Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.54s
|
||
Running `target/debug/traits-example`
|
||
A baby dog is called a Spot
|
||
</code></pre>
|
||
<p>这并不是我们需要的。我们希望调用的是 <code>Dog</code> 上 <code>Animal</code> trait 实现那部分的 <code>baby_name</code> 函数,这样能够打印出 <code>A baby dog is called a puppy</code>。示例 19-18 中用到的技术在这并不管用;如果将 <code>main</code> 改为示例 19-20 中的代码,则会得到一个编译错误:</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/main.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore does_not_compile"><span class="boring">trait Animal {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn baby_name() -> String;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">struct Dog;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Dog {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn baby_name() -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> String::from("Spot")
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Animal for Dog {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn baby_name() -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> String::from("puppy")
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span>fn main() {
|
||
println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name());
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<p><span class="caption">示例 19-20: 尝试调用 <code>Animal</code> trait 的 <code>baby_name</code> 函数,不过 Rust 并不知道该使用哪一个实现</span></p>
|
||
<p>因为 <code>Animal::baby_name</code> 没有 <code>self</code> 参数,同时这可能会有其它类型实现了 <code>Animal</code> trait,Rust 无法计算出所需的是哪一个 <code>Animal::baby_name</code> 实现。我们会得到这个编译错误:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-console">$ cargo run
|
||
Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example)
|
||
error[E0790]: cannot call associated function on trait without specifying the corresponding `impl` type
|
||
--> src/main.rs:20:43
|
||
|
|
||
2 | fn baby_name() -> String;
|
||
| ------------------------- `Animal::baby_name` defined here
|
||
...
|
||
20 | println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name());
|
||
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot call associated function of trait
|
||
|
|
||
help: use the fully-qualified path to the only available implementation
|
||
|
|
||
20 | println!("A baby dog is called a {}", <Dog as Animal>::baby_name());
|
||
| +++++++ +
|
||
|
||
For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0790`.
|
||
error: could not compile `traits-example` (bin "traits-example") due to 1 previous error
|
||
</code></pre>
|
||
<p>为了消歧义并告诉 Rust 我们希望使用的是 <code>Dog</code> 的 <code>Animal</code> 实现而不是其它类型的 <code>Animal</code> 实现,需要使用 <strong>完全限定语法</strong>,这是调用函数时最为明确的方式。示例 19-21 展示了如何使用完全限定语法:</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/main.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">trait Animal {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn baby_name() -> String;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">struct Dog;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Dog {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn baby_name() -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> String::from("Spot")
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Animal for Dog {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn baby_name() -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> String::from("puppy")
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span>fn main() {
|
||
println!("A baby dog is called a {}", <Dog as Animal>::baby_name());
|
||
}</code></pre></pre>
|
||
<p><span class="caption">示例 19-21: 使用完全限定语法来指定我们希望调用的是 <code>Dog</code> 上 <code>Animal</code> trait 实现中的 <code>baby_name</code> 函数</span></p>
|
||
<p>我们在尖括号中向 Rust 提供了类型注解,并通过在此函数调用中将 <code>Dog</code> 类型当作 <code>Animal</code> 对待,来指定希望调用的是 <code>Dog</code> 上 <code>Animal</code> trait 实现中的 <code>baby_name</code> 函数。现在这段代码会打印出我们期望的数据:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-console">$ cargo run
|
||
Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example)
|
||
Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s
|
||
Running `target/debug/traits-example`
|
||
A baby dog is called a puppy
|
||
</code></pre>
|
||
<p>通常,完全限定语法定义为:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore"><Type as Trait>::function(receiver_if_method, next_arg, ...);</code></pre>
|
||
<p>对于不是方法的关联函数,其没有一个 <code>receiver</code>,故只会有其他参数的列表。可以选择在任何函数或方法调用处使用完全限定语法。然而,允许省略任何 Rust 能够从程序中的其他信息中计算出的部分。只有当存在多个同名实现而 Rust 需要帮助以便知道我们希望调用哪个实现时,才需要使用这个较为冗长的语法。</p>
|
||
<h3 id="父-trait-用于在另一个-trait-中使用某-trait-的功能"><a class="header" href="#父-trait-用于在另一个-trait-中使用某-trait-的功能">父 trait 用于在另一个 trait 中使用某 trait 的功能</a></h3>
|
||
<p>有时我们可能会需要编写一个依赖另一个 trait 的 trait 定义:对于一个实现了第一个 trait 的类型,你希望要求这个类型也实现了第二个 trait。如此就可使 trait 定义使用第二个 trait 的关联项。这个所需的 trait 是我们实现的 trait 的 <strong>父(超)trait</strong>(<em>supertrait</em>)。</p>
|
||
<p>例如我们希望创建一个带有 <code>outline_print</code> 方法的 trait <code>OutlinePrint</code>,它会将给定的值格式化为带有星号框。也就是说,给定一个实现了标准库 <code>Display</code> trait 的并返回 <code>(x, y)</code> 的 <code>Point</code>,当调用以 <code>1</code> 作为 <code>x</code> 和 <code>3</code> 作为 <code>y</code> 的 <code>Point</code> 实例的 <code>outline_print</code> 会显示如下:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-text">**********
|
||
* *
|
||
* (1, 3) *
|
||
* *
|
||
**********
|
||
</code></pre>
|
||
<p>在 <code>outline_print</code> 的实现中,因为希望能够使用 <code>Display</code> trait 的功能,则需要说明 <code>OutlinePrint</code> 只能用于同时也实现了 <code>Display</code> 并提供了 <code>OutlinePrint</code> 需要的功能的类型。可以通过在 trait 定义中指定 <code>OutlinePrint: Display</code> 来做到这一点。这类似于为 trait 增加 trait bound。示例 19-22 展示了一个 <code>OutlinePrint</code> trait 的实现:</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/main.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021">use std::fmt;
|
||
|
||
trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display {
|
||
fn outline_print(&self) {
|
||
let output = self.to_string();
|
||
let len = output.len();
|
||
println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
|
||
println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
|
||
println!("* {output} *");
|
||
println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
|
||
println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
<span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
||
<p><span class="caption">示例 19-22: 实现 <code>OutlinePrint</code> trait,它要求来自 <code>Display</code> 的功能</span></p>
|
||
<p>因为指定了 <code>OutlinePrint</code> 需要 <code>Display</code> trait,则可以在 <code>outline_print</code> 中使用 <code>to_string</code>,其会为任何实现 <code>Display</code> 的类型自动实现。如果不在 trait 名后增加 <code>: Display</code> 并尝试在 <code>outline_print</code> 中使用 <code>to_string</code>,则会得到一个错误说在当前作用域中没有找到用于 <code>&Self</code> 类型的方法 <code>to_string</code>。</p>
|
||
<p>让我们看看如果尝试在一个没有实现 <code>Display</code> 的类型上实现 <code>OutlinePrint</code> 会发生什么,比如 <code>Point</code> 结构体:</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/main.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore does_not_compile"><span class="boring">use std::fmt;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn outline_print(&self) {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> let output = self.to_string();
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> let len = output.len();
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("* {output} *");
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span>struct Point {
|
||
x: i32,
|
||
y: i32,
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
impl OutlinePrint for Point {}
|
||
<span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> let p = Point { x: 1, y: 3 };
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> p.outline_print();
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}</span></code></pre>
|
||
<p>这样会得到一个错误说 <code>Display</code> 是必须的而未被实现:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-console">$ cargo run
|
||
Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example)
|
||
error[E0277]: `Point` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display`
|
||
--> src/main.rs:20:23
|
||
|
|
||
20 | impl OutlinePrint for Point {}
|
||
| ^^^^^ `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter
|
||
|
|
||
= help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Point`
|
||
= note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead
|
||
note: required by a bound in `OutlinePrint`
|
||
--> src/main.rs:3:21
|
||
|
|
||
3 | trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display {
|
||
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `OutlinePrint`
|
||
|
||
error[E0277]: `Point` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display`
|
||
--> src/main.rs:24:7
|
||
|
|
||
24 | p.outline_print();
|
||
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter
|
||
|
|
||
= help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Point`
|
||
= note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead
|
||
note: required by a bound in `OutlinePrint::outline_print`
|
||
--> src/main.rs:3:21
|
||
|
|
||
3 | trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display {
|
||
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `OutlinePrint::outline_print`
|
||
4 | fn outline_print(&self) {
|
||
| ------------- required by a bound in this associated function
|
||
|
||
For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`.
|
||
error: could not compile `traits-example` (bin "traits-example") due to 2 previous errors
|
||
</code></pre>
|
||
<p>一旦在 <code>Point</code> 上实现 <code>Display</code> 并满足 <code>OutlinePrint</code> 要求的限制,比如这样:</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/main.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn outline_print(&self) {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> let output = self.to_string();
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> let len = output.len();
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("* {output} *");
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">struct Point {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> x: i32,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> y: i32,
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl OutlinePrint for Point {}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span>use std::fmt;
|
||
|
||
impl fmt::Display for Point {
|
||
fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
|
||
write!(f, "({}, {})", self.x, self.y)
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
<span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> let p = Point { x: 1, y: 3 };
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> p.outline_print();
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
||
<p>那么在 <code>Point</code> 上实现 <code>OutlinePrint</code> trait 将能成功编译,并可以在 <code>Point</code> 实例上调用 <code>outline_print</code> 来显示位于星号框中的点的值。</p>
|
||
<h3 id="newtype-模式用以在外部类型上实现外部-trait"><a class="header" href="#newtype-模式用以在外部类型上实现外部-trait">newtype 模式用以在外部类型上实现外部 trait</a></h3>
|
||
<p>在第十章的 <a href="ch10-02-traits.html#%E4%B8%BA%E7%B1%BB%E5%9E%8B%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0-trait">“为类型实现 trait”</a> 部分,我们提到了孤儿规则(orphan rule),它说明只要 trait 或类型对于当前 crate 是本地的话就可以在此类型上实现该 trait。一个绕开这个限制的方法是使用 <strong>newtype 模式</strong>(<em>newtype pattern</em>),它涉及到在一个元组结构体(第五章 <a href="ch05-01-defining-structs.html#%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8%E6%B2%A1%E6%9C%89%E5%91%BD%E5%90%8D%E5%AD%97%E6%AE%B5%E7%9A%84%E5%85%83%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E4%BD%93%E6%9D%A5%E5%88%9B%E5%BB%BA%E4%B8%8D%E5%90%8C%E7%9A%84%E7%B1%BB%E5%9E%8B">“用没有命名字段的元组结构体来创建不同的类型”</a> 部分介绍了元组结构体)中创建一个新类型。这个元组结构体带有一个字段作为希望实现 trait 的类型的简单封装。接着这个封装类型对于 crate 是本地的,这样就可以在这个封装上实现 trait。<em>Newtype</em> 是一个源自 Haskell 编程语言的概念。使用这个模式没有运行时性能惩罚,这个封装类型在编译时就被省略了。</p>
|
||
<p>例如,如果想要在 <code>Vec<T></code> 上实现 <code>Display</code>,而孤儿规则阻止我们直接这么做,因为 <code>Display</code> trait 和 <code>Vec<T></code> 都定义于我们的 crate 之外。可以创建一个包含 <code>Vec<T></code> 实例的 <code>Wrapper</code> 结构体,接着可以如列表 19-23 那样在 <code>Wrapper</code> 上实现 <code>Display</code> 并使用 <code>Vec<T></code> 的值:</p>
|
||
<p><span class="filename">文件名:src/main.rs</span></p>
|
||
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021">use std::fmt;
|
||
|
||
struct Wrapper(Vec<String>);
|
||
|
||
impl fmt::Display for Wrapper {
|
||
fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
|
||
write!(f, "[{}]", self.0.join(", "))
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
fn main() {
|
||
let w = Wrapper(vec![String::from("hello"), String::from("world")]);
|
||
println!("w = {w}");
|
||
}</code></pre></pre>
|
||
<p><span class="caption">示例 19-23: 创建 <code>Wrapper</code> 类型封装 <code>Vec<String></code> 以便能够实现 <code>Display</code></span></p>
|
||
<p><code>Display</code> 的实现使用 <code>self.0</code> 来访问其内部的 <code>Vec<T></code>,因为 <code>Wrapper</code> 是元组结构体而 <code>Vec<T></code> 是结构体总位于索引 0 的项。接着就可以使用 <code>Wrapper</code> 中 <code>Display</code> 的功能了。</p>
|
||
<p>此方法的缺点是,因为 <code>Wrapper</code> 是一个新类型,它没有定义于其值之上的方法;必须直接在 <code>Wrapper</code> 上实现 <code>Vec<T></code> 的所有方法,这样就可以代理到<code>self.0</code> 上 —— 这就允许我们完全像 <code>Vec<T></code> 那样对待 <code>Wrapper</code>。如果希望新类型拥有其内部类型的每一个方法,为封装类型实现 <code>Deref</code> trait(第十五章 <a href="ch15-02-deref.html#%E9%80%9A%E8%BF%87%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0-deref-trait-%E5%B0%86%E6%9F%90%E7%B1%BB%E5%9E%8B%E5%83%8F%E5%BC%95%E7%94%A8%E4%B8%80%E6%A0%B7%E5%A4%84%E7%90%86">“通过 <code>Deref</code> trait 将智能指针当作常规引用处理”</a> 部分讨论过)并返回其内部类型是一种解决方案。如果不希望封装类型拥有所有内部类型的方法 —— 比如为了限制封装类型的行为 —— 则必须只自行实现所需的方法。</p>
|
||
<p>甚至当不涉及 trait 时 newtype 模式也很有用。现在让我们将话题的焦点转移到一些与 Rust 类型系统交互的高级方法上来吧。</p>
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